RESEARCH: Studies from 14 to 20 Apr 25
Sharing research and insights from coaches, scientists and athletes to help us improve endurance performance.
NOTE: Yesterday I published a draft version of this newsletter by mistake. Please discard that and consider this the relevant version.
This week’s quick summary:
Designing time-efficient training programmes for strength and hypertrophy
Racing demands for winning a Grand Tour
The effects of sodium bicarbonate on repeated 4km cycling performance
Common questions and misconceptions about energy drinks
The impact of pre-sleep protein ingestion on the skeletal muscle
STRENGTH: No time to lift? Designing time-efficient training programs for strength and hypertrophy
Lack of time is often an issue for exercise adherence. While prior research supports the effectiveness of resistance training for strength and hypertrophy, it often overlooks how time constraints shape programme design. In this review, the authors set out to “determine how strength training can be most effectively carried out in a time-efficient manner by critically evaluating research on acute training variables, advanced training techniques, and the need for warm-up and stretching”.
REVIEW DETAILS
The review did not include new participants but synthesised existing research on resistance training variables affecting strength and hypertrophy.
It focused on interventions using multi-joint, bilateral exercises (e.g. squats, bench press, pull-ups), performed with both free weights and machines.
A minimum weekly dose of 4 sets per muscle group using 6–15RM loads was effective; 15–40 reps to failure also promoted gains, especially in hypertrophy.
Advanced techniques (supersets, drop sets, rest-pause) reduced training time by ~50% while maintaining volume, though they appeared more effective for hypertrophy than strength.
Exercise-specific warm-ups were sufficient, and stretching was only needed when flexibility was a goal.
PRACTICAL TAKEAWAY
The results of this review suggest that time-efficient resistance training should focus on full-body, multi-joint exercises using moderate-to-high loads or high-rep sets to failure. Certain techniques such as supersets can reduce session duration without sacrificing gains. My recommendation for athletes is to determine clear objectives for their strength training, then match this with the minimum effective dose possible to achieve these goals. Don’t perform long warm-ups and consider using techniques such as supersets to reduce the time demands of strength training so it is easier to fit into your plan and to adhere to in the long-term.
RELATED RESEARCH
The minimum effective training dose required to increase 1RM strength in resistance-trained men
Are trainees lifting heavy enough? Self-selected loads in resistance exercise
PHYSIOLOGY: Racing demands for winning a Grand Tour: differences and similarities between a female and a male winner
Recent studies have explored the physiological and tactical demands of Grand Tour cycling, but data comparing male and female winners is limited. In this study, the authors set out to “describe and compare the race characteristics, demands, and durability profile of a male and a female Grand Tour winner”.
STUDY DETAILS
The study analysed performance data from one male and one female Grand Tour winner, focusing on time trials, flat, semimountainous, and mountain stages.
The male cyclist had higher absolute values (FTP: 413W; critical power: 417W) compared to the female (FTP: 297W; critical power: 297W).
When normalised to relative values, both cyclists showed similar power distribution and pacing across stage types.
The female cyclist rode a higher percentage of her FTP in the early sections of flat stages (14.7–15.1%) and the final quarter of mountain stages (9.8%) compared to the male.
Maximal mean power output (MMP) declined only after 30kJ/kg in the female and 45kJ/kg in the male, corresponding to 75% and 80% of total energy expenditure respectively.
PRACTICAL TAKEAWAY
This study showed that to win a Grand Tour, both male and female athletes must exhibit exceptional durability, maintaining high power outputs deep into a stage. Success in these types of races is tied to the ability to delay fatigue until 75–80% of total energy expenditure, alongside strong time-trial and climbing performance. While most athletes are not aiming to win a Grand Tour, this study shows the importance of durability to endurance performance. My recommendation for athletes is to focus on training durability in their training. In my newsletter index you can find articles that explore how to do this including strength training and intervals after certain workloads have already been completed.
RELATED RESEARCH
SUPPLEMENT: The effects of a novel sodium bicarbonate ingestion system on repeated 4km cycling time trial performance in well-trained male cyclists
Sodium bicarbonate (SB) supplementation is known to enhance high-intensity performance, but its use is often limited by gastrointestinal (GI) discomfort. In this study, the authors set out to “investigate the effects of Maurten Bicarb System (M-SB) ingestion on repeated 4km cycling time trials in well-trained male cyclists”.
STUDY DETAILS
10 well-trained male cyclists (VO₂ Max: 67±4ml/kg/min; PPO: 423±21W) completed a randomised, double-blind, crossover study.
After testing individual bicarbonate peak times, cyclists performed two 4km time trials (TT1 and TT2) separated by 45min recovery.
Cyclists ingested either 0.3g/kg M-SB, 0.21g/kg sodium chloride placebo, or no supplement (control), timed to individual bicarbonate peaks.
M-SB improved TT1 performance by 5.1s vs control and 3.5s vs placebo.
M-SB also improved TT2 performance by 4.4s vs control and 4.1s vs placebo, with no significant increase in GI discomfort.
PRACTICAL TAKEAWAY
This study suggests that cyclists may benefit from using the Maurten Bicarb System prior to short, high-intensity efforts. When timed to peak bicarbonate levels, it improved time trial performance across two bouts without increasing GI symptoms. In the past, whenever I posted a study on bicarbonate use, I received a few emails sharing horror stories of terrible GI issues when using it. My recommendation for athletes considering using bicarbonate is to test it thoroughly in training and if GI issues arise, to try a product like Maurten to see if it resolves the GI problems.
RELATED RESEARCH
NUTRITION: Common questions and misconceptions about energy drinks
Previous studies have linked energy drink (ED) consumption with health risks, yet misconceptions persist about ED ingredients, effects, and safety. In this review, the authors set out to “examine the common beliefs and scientific evidence regarding energy drinks, particularly related to health effects and safety”.
REVIEW DETAILS
The review examined 57 peer-reviewed studies on EDs, spanning healthy individuals, athletes, adolescents, and those with medical conditions.
Most studies focused on acute effects of ED consumption, especially cardiovascular, metabolic, and cognitive responses.
Caffeine was identified as the primary active compound responsible for physiological effects, with typical doses per ED being 80–300mg.
Moderate caffeine intake (≤400mg/day for adults) did not show significant health concerns in healthy populations; excessive intake raised potential risks.
EDs showed modest improvements in alertness and performance, but concerns were noted with high doses, mixing with alcohol, and consumption in children and adolescents.
PRACTICAL TAKEAWAY
This review showed that the primary ingredient in energy drinks that created physiological effects is caffeine. The authors suggested healthy adults consuming standard amounts of caffeine from EDs (≤400mg/day) are unlikely to experience serious health effects. My recommendation for athletes considering using energy drinks in their training or as a stimulus before or during races, is to investigate the caffeine content of the drink and to make a complete nutrition plan that takes into account the different sources of caffeine they ingest. My personal preference would be to use caffeine tablets or gels containing caffeine so the dose can be carefully controlled and managed in a standalone way without worrying about the carbohydrates or any other contents of energy drinks.
RELATED RESEARCH
NUTRITION: The impact of pre-sleep protein ingestion on the skeletal muscle adaptive response to exercise in humans
Recent studies have explored how the timing of protein intake influences muscle adaptation. In this review, the authors “focused on the effects of consuming protein before sleep on overnight muscle protein synthesis and long-term training outcomes”.
REVIEW DETAILS
Pre-sleep protein ingestion (20–40g) is effectively digested and absorbed during sleep, increasing overnight muscle protein synthesis in both young and older adults.
In young men, consuming 27.5g of protein before sleep during a 12-week resistance training programme led to greater gains in muscle mass and strength compared to a non-protein placebo.
In older adults, pre-sleep protein intake did not enhance muscle mass or strength gains during a similar 12-week resistance training programme.
Pre-sleep protein consumption does not negatively affect next-morning appetite or resting energy expenditure in healthy young men.
In overweight or obese individuals, pre-sleep protein intake may increase insulin resistance markers unless combined with regular exercise.
PRACTICAL TAKEAWAY
This review suggests that for healthy young adults engaged in resistance training, consuming ~30g of protein before sleep can enhance muscle mass and strength gains. My recommendation for athletes is to consider including a dose of pre-sleep protein in their diet especially during periods of heavy training or periods of training focused on strength improvements. Previous recommendations suggested a pre-sleep dose of 20-25g of protein, however, I would recommend aiming for 30-40g of protein based on this study and other research that has shown that higher doses of protein can be effective for muscle protein synthesis.
RELATED RESEARCH
Quick summary from last week’s paid newsletter
Paid subscribers receive a newsletter every week and have full access to all newsletters listed in the archives (615 studies and practical takeaways). Last week, the newsletter covered studies on the following topics:
Physiological resilience training
Glycaemic control in athletes
Physical therapies for delayed-onset muscle soreness
Effects of 24h diet- or exercise-induced energy availability manipulations
Lactate threshold and swimming performance in open-water swimmers
